Editing Leiden plates

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! style="text-align:left; width:35%;" | Title
| Leiden plates
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! style="text-align:left;" | Author(s)
| Srinidhi Balasubramanian, Nidhi Bhutada
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! style="text-align:left;" | Platform
| Bharatiya Jnana Sarita
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! style="text-align:left;" | Categories
| Historical and civilizational Sciences
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! style="text-align:left;" | Year
| 2026
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! style="text-align:left;" | Type of Article
| Original Article - Long Form
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! style="text-align:left;" | Difficulty Level
| Beginner
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! style="text-align:left;" | Abstract
| The Leiden plates are coming home! Prime Minister Narendra Modi will be getting them from Netherlands during his upcoming visit there! Wait – what are these Leiden copper plates? And why should we be excited by this news? We talk of two sets of copper plates – the larger Leiden copper plates a set of 21 plates consisting of Sanskrit and Tamil inscriptions, and the smaller Leiden copper plates a set of 3 plates with Tamil inscriptions. Being housed at the Leiden University Museum in Netherlands for all these years, we now celebrate their homecoming. These inscriptions of the Leiden copper plates shed light and present us an opportunity to dive into one of the most fascinating chapters of Indian history – the political, the religious, the economic, and the civilizational perspectives of the maritime silk route. In short, the inscriptions are from the 11th century, and record the grant of villages by the then Chola emperors for the upkeep of a Buddhist Vihāra at Nāgapaṭṭinam on the request of the then Śrīvijayan emperors. Who were the Cholas and who were the Srivijayans? Where was Nāgapaṭṭinam? What is the significance of this Vihāra? Let us embark on a small tour along the 11th century maritime silk route. Much of this essay is inspired from and directly borrows from the excellent book on this subject ‘Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia’
|}

The Leiden plates are coming home! Prime Minister Narendra Modi will be getting them from Netherlands during his upcoming visit there!

Wait – what are these Leiden copper plates? And why should we be excited by this news?

We talk of two sets of copper plates – the larger Leiden copper plates a set of 21 plates consisting of Sanskrit and Tamil inscriptions, and the smaller Leiden copper plates a set of 3 plates with Tamil inscriptions. Being housed at the Leiden University Museum in Netherlands for all these years, we now celebrate their homecoming.

These inscriptions of the Leiden copper plates shed light and present us an opportunity to dive into one of the most fascinating chapters of Indian history – the political, the religious, the economic, and the civilizational perspectives of the ''maritime silk route.'' In short, the inscriptions are from the 11<sup>th</sup> century, and record the '''''grant of villages''''' by the then '''''Chola emperors''''' for the upkeep of a '''''Buddhist Vihāra at Nāgapaṭṭinam''''' on the request of the then '''''Śrīvijayan emperors.'''''

Who were the Cholas and who were the Srivijayans? Where was Nāgapaṭṭinam? What is the significance of this Vihāra? Let us embark on a small tour along the 11<sup>th</sup> century ''maritime silk route.''

Much of this essay is inspired from and directly borrows from the excellent book on this subject ‘Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia’

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The ''Indosphere,'' as we call it today, comprises of large parts South-East Asia – from Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia, to Cambodia, Vietnam and Philippines. These countries once shared deep cultural, religious and civilizational ties with ours, and the influence of Sindhu-Saraswati civilization extended far and wide. That the large ruins of magnificent Hindu and Buddhist temples are scattered across these lands, that the people of Bali, even today are Hindus, much distinct and thriving, and that the Kings of Thailand are named after Śrī Rāma, with their erstwhile capital named after Ayodhya; are obvious and anecdotal instances of a history of 1500 years and the geography of a continent!

[[File:BJS_10_image1.png|382x285px|undefined]]

''Indosphere. Source: Wikipedia Commons''

Proselytization was never our ethos. How then, did the civilization reach lands so far? One answer, comes to us via the Indian ocean, via trade. Maritime trade routes ensured a close connect between the kingdoms on the east coast of India with South East Asia and the movement of cultural and knowledge capital from India.

'''The Śrīvijaya Empire'''

Many Hindu and Buddhist states rose and flourished in Indonesian Islands and the Malay peninsula. One such state was that of Śrīvijaya.

In the 7<sup>th</sup> century CE, when a Buddhist monk from China named Yijing, like many other Buddhists scholars at that time, sought to come to India to study the Buddhist texts. He came to Nalanda and left behind a detailed travelogue. He stopped in Śrīvijaya, and noted –

<blockquote>''“In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years and practice the proper rules...”''

</blockquote>

In the 9<sup>th</sup> century, the Śrīvijayan king Bālaputra, sent an embassy to the then Pālā Emperor Devapaladeva of Bengal, who granted the revenues of five villages, for the upkeep of the Śrīvijayan monastery at Nalanda. He granted 5 villages at the request of the king of Suvarnadvipa (Java) Balaputradeva for the upkeep of the monastery built by them in Nalanda. A truly international university of that era, and a great symbiotic relationship between two big powers of the Indosphere!

[[File:BJS_10_image2.jpeg|341x298px|Image]]

''Indosphere in the 9<sup>th</sup> century''

By the 10<sup>th</sup> century, much of Java, Sumatra and Malay were under Śrīvijaya, then ruled by the Śailendra dynasty. The continuous trade activities and voyages caused the emergence of

number of seaports in the Indian Ocean. Śrīvijaya’s expansion to conquer all these ports was strategic, and they sought to establish hegemony over the Strait of Malacca – the gate between the east and the west. Thus, Srivijaya emerged as one of the leading transit points for ships sailing from the Chinese coast to India and Arabia and vice versa.

[[File:BJS_10_image3.png|310x315px|The maximum extent of Srivijaya around the 8th to the 11th century with a series of Srivijayan expeditions and conquest]]

''Śrīvjaya Empire under the Sailendra dynasty. Note the islands of Java and Sumatra, and the Malay peninsula. Also note their capital, Palembang and port city Kedah. Prambanan, in central Java is the site of the popular Prambanan Hindu temple ruins. The straits of Malacca practically controlled the trade movements between the west and the east. Source: Wikipedia Commons''

[Note: Śrīvijaya, Śailendra, Kedah, were different dynasties/states at different points of history. But for this essay, we take them to be synonymous, as they were the same during the period of discussion]

According to Chinese chronicles, Srivijayans forced foreign ships to stop at their ports, and failure to do so resulted in being raided and attacked by the Srivijayan navy and pirates. This obviously irked the other nations involved in this trade route.

'''Port Cities and Trade Guilds'''

The port of Kedah, in today’s Malaysia (Kaṭaḥa in Sanskrit and Kaṭāram/Kadaram, in Tamil) was a major international port. Kedah was located right at the entry of the Malacca Strait. It served as the layover of traders waiting for favourable winds before voyaging further, and a replenishment and repair point for ships.

[[File:BJS_10_image4.jpeg|329x246px|undefined]] [[File:BJS_10_image5.jpeg|224x245px|undefined]]

''Left: The Kedah peak as seen form the sea. Naturally, a significant natural landmark for seafarers. Right: Ruins of Hindu temples at the base of the Kedah peak. Source: Wikipedia Commons''

Another important port city in this maritime world was Nāgapaṭṭinam, about a 100 kms off Tañjāvūr, on the coast of Tamil Nadu. Nāgapaṭṭinam for long, was already an important pilgrimage site, ''Tirunāgai''. It houses two prominent temples – ''Sundaraperumāl̥'', one of the 108 Divya Deśams, and the ''Kāyārohaneśwarar'', a Pāḍalpetr̥a sthalam. In fact, the Tēvāram saints who sang in Nāgapaṭṭinam, vividly describe the port town as bustling with economic activity in beautiful poetry. They write about how Nāgapaṭṭinam was a huge fortified city with armed forces guarding it, a city surrounded by large ships and sails, and where ‘lights were on throughout the night’!

[[File:BJS_10_image6.jpeg|428x290px|Dutch engraving showing Nagapatnam c. 1680]]

''A Dutch painting of the Nāgapaṭṭinam port from the later times. Source: Wikipedia Commons''

These port cities were truly international and cosmopolitan. Records talk about how diverse nationalities and languages met. Literature talks in detail about the different kinds of riches and goods that were traded, and also of taxes and duties!

In the medieval times, trade was carried out by merchants who grouped themselves into ‘guilds’ – a sort of primitive company. Through inscriptions left behind by these merchant guilds, we can understand their organization and activities. Three such merchant guilds were most prominent in the context of this maritime trade with South East Asia.


* Añjuvaṇṇam: This was a guild comprising of foreign traders – Jews, Christians and Muslims, who settled in the coast of Kerala in the early part of the millennium. They largely operated across the ports of southern India.

* Maṇigrāmam: Originally group of traders from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, they engaged actively in trade in the hinterland too

* Ainnuruvar or the 500 lords of Ayyavole: This was the largest and most influencial of all merchant guilds. They originate from Aihole, the Chalukya heartland and operated successfully throughout India and South East Asia. Their praśasti (eulogy) states that they operated in 18 paṭṭanam (cities), 32 vēl̥āpuram (harbours), and 64 kadīgaitāval̥am (markets), Of course, these numbers are not to be taken literally, but to signify a great many number. Their inscriptions mention in detail, a great variety of different merchants engaging in specific activities and trades, and different categories of soldiers and other workmen who accompanies them. By the 13<sup>th</sup> century, both Añjuvaṇṇam and Maṇigrāmam were incorporated into Ainnuruvar

These trade guilds exercised considerable influence over not only trade and economy of the country, but also over the social and political spheres of life. Their activities were spread throughout the Indian peninsula and Southeast Asia. They were prosperous, performed charity, supported religious activities, and built temples. They held assemblies to mark important events and take critical decisions. They had their own flag, armies to escort their caravans and merchant ships, and independent colonies in various port cities and foreign countries. Their eulogies claim they were born to wander in many countries by land and water routes, penetrating the regions of the six continents to fill up the emperor’s treasury!

Such prosperity economic growth and activities obviously needed political stability and power, and vice versa. Enter the Cholas.

'''The Chola Empire<br />

'''The Cholas were one of the three ancient Tamil kingdoms that over the middle region of Tamil Nadu, centred around the Kaveri delta for a long time. From the 8<sup>th</sup> century onwards, they started growing in territory and power and reached their peak in the 11<sup>th</sup> century. By the time of Rājarāja Chola in the last quarter of 10<sup>th</sup> century, a great part of Southern India was unified under the empire, established a highly organized and systemized administrative structure, a thriving cultural ecosystem and a prosperous economy. In around 1012 CE, Rājendra Chola succeeded and was an emperor and conqueror par excellence. In 1919 CE,he embarked on a Digvijaya across the eastern coast, conquering the Andhra coast, Kalinga, and Bengal, thereby becoming the undisputed master of the eastern coast of India.

During the reign of both Rājaraja Chola and Rājendra Chola, they maintained close and cordial relationships with Śrīvijaya in the initial years. We know from inscriptions that there was an official ambassador of Śrivijaya stationed in the Chola kingdom, to take care of their interests here. In Nagapattinam itself, between 1010-1015 CE, we see at least three instances of these officials donating gold and gifts to the Chola temples on behalf of Srivijaya. Note that this is the first time in history that we find such frequent and intense international activities between India and South East Asia.

[[File:BJS_10_image7.jpeg|276x262px]]

''Rājendra Chola in battle, as depicted in the Kolaramma Temple, Kolar, Karnataka. He was called ‘Gaṅgaikonḍa Cholar’ that literally meant ‘the Chola who conquered Gaṅga’, on account of his campaign till Bengal. Picture: By Author''

Recap:


# The Indian Ocean was witnessing thriving international, intercontinental trade

# The Indosphere comprised of many several prosperous and thriving Hindu/Buddhist kingdoms with shared culture and symbiotic civilizational developments

# The Śrīvijayan Empire now held power over the islands of South East Asia over this maritime trade route and sought to establish complete hegemony

# The Cholas now held power over the entire eastern coast of India, and maintained a powerful navy

# Trade guilds were powerful groups of merchants who held great influence over trade and state. Kedah and Nagapattinam were key ports in this trade circuit.

This is our stage set ready to dive into the Leiden grant.

'''The Larger Leiden Copper Plates'''

In 1003 CE, Sri Maravijayottungavarman, the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, had constructed in the name of his father built a Buddhist monastery called ‘Cudamani Vihara’ in Nagapattinam. in 1005 CE, the 21<sup>st</sup> regional year of Rajaraja Chola, he donated the revenue of a village for the upkeep of a shrine in this monastery. This is the subject of the larger Leiden copper plates. Nagapattinam, in this inscription is mentioned to be a delightful city, and that the vihara is mentioned to be taller than Kanaka Giri i.e, Mount Meru!

As with any other Chola inscription, incredible precision in calculations, administrative procedures and every small and big detail is recorded carefully. It records that “''the income of 8,943 kalam, 2 tuni, 1 kuruni, and 1 nali of paddy accruing from the payment of the assessment on 97 veli, 2 ma, 1.5 kani, 1 mundirigai Kil of three ma, three kani and one mundirigai and Kil of half and two ma of land comprising the village of Aanaimangalam we given tax free.”'' We learn that assemblies of no less than 26 villages participated in drawing of these boundaries.

[[File:BJS_10_image8.jpeg|282x211px|Image]][[File:BJS_10_image9.jpeg|284x213px|Image]]

''Left: The larger and smaller Leiden copper plate. Right: The Chola royal seal engraved on the ring. Checkout the interesting imagery of the seal here: https://x.com/tskrishnan/status/2055925451311419410. Source: Multiple media outlets''



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'''Word Count:''' 2391