Editing Hydromanagement in Ancient India (section)

=== '''Early Historic Period and Classical Period: Second Urbanization and Age of Epics''' ===
During the 2nd millennium BCE, Harappan urbanization gave way to Gangetic ruralization as a result of devolution and localization. Nevertheless, despite the decline of cities, hydro management knowledge survived in various forms, albeit on a limited scale. During Period II (1400 BCE–1000 BCE) at Inamgaon of the Jorwe culture, channels were discovered in the courtyards of houses to drain rainwater from roofs, as well as an embankment with a channel used for irrigating the surrounding fields. In the first half of the first millennium BCE, there were indications of a second urbanization that spanned the entire Indian subcontinent. In the north, it took the form of 16 Mahajanpadas and then the Pax Maurya, whereas in the far south, in the Tamilakam region, it marked the beginning of the Sangam era.

Agriculture and livestock rearing occupied a prominent role during the Upnishadhic, Jainism and Buddhist periods (600 BCE), and channel irrigation was in vogue. Field embankments were constructed surrounding the fields to increase water holding capacity at strategic points with sluice gates to harness river water with proper regulation facilities (Arthashastra), and irrigation through conduits was in practice to deliver water to the irrigation field for attaining higher efficiency. Literature suggests that a large number of hydraulic structures (dams, canals, and lakes) were built during the Mauryan period in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and other parts of the country for irrigation and drinking purposes. In ancient times, wells and tanks were the popular sources of irrigation. The general pattern of irrigation seems to have been the same in post-Maurya times as in subsequent times in India, namely by wells, tanks, canals, and rivers. Archeological excavations have brought to light several terracotta ring-wells belonging to the period 600–200 B.C (Sharma, 1957)<sup>29</sup>. These have been found at Hastinapura, New Delhi, Rupar, Ujjain, Mathura, and Nasik." While some of these ring-wells served as sonkage pits, others were used as real wells; this was certainly the case with brick wells, for instance, the one that was found at Ujjain. In Astadhyayi of Panini (4th BCE), we find the word Kupa for wells. At around 500 BCE, the city of Ujjain was also provided with a sophisticated drainage system, having soak pits built of pottery rings or pierced pots. In Taxila around 300 BCE, a very similar drainage system to that of Mohenjo-Daro was in place (Singh, Dey, Jain, and Mujumdar, 2020)<sup>30</sup>.

By the beginning of 300 BCE, a firm administrative setup due to centralized Mauryan state had taken shape. The Kautiliya Arthasästra (c.300 BCE) emphasizes the importance of irrigation works by mentioning them as sources of crops. For everlasting benefits like excellent rainfall, water from irrigation is also equally beneficial. Another passage from Arthasăstra, while stating the attribute of a good country, highlights the importance of irrigation and not depending upon mere rainwater. Many of these structures were equipped with spillways as a safety measure against large, incoming floods. During the Mauryan Empire (400–184 BCE), the emperor Chandragupta Maurya constructed the Sudarsana dam in Girnar, Junagadh, Gujarat. Subsequent structural improvements involved the addition of conduits during the reign of Asoka the Great by his provincial governor, the "Yavana Administrator (Greek Administrator)," Tusaspha (Kielhorn, In an excavation conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) during 1951–1955, in Kumhrar (the site of ancient Pataliputra), which is a few miles south of Patna, Bihar, "a canal 45 feet broad, 10 feet deep, and traced up to the length of 450 feet" was found, possibly belonging to the Mauryan period. The canal was linked with the "Son River" and also with the "Ganges" for navigation purposes and also for providing irrigation to the adjoining area (Jain, 1991)<sup>14</sup>.

As recognition of the high position accorded to agriculture by the rulers as well as the people at large, the construction of tanks and other types of reservoirs was considered an act of religious merit. Here the religious merit indicates "the welfare and wellbeing of the society." The Arthashastra mentions that "he (the King) shall construct reservoirs (setu) filled with water, either perennial or drawn from some other source." "Or he may provide sites, roads, timber, and other necessary things to those who construct reservoirs of their own accord." The Arthashastra of Kautilya gives us an idea of the principles and methods of management of irrigation systems. That the Mauryan kings took keen interest in the irrigation schemes is borne out by the report of Megasthenes (a Greek traveler), who mentions a group of officers responsible for supervising the rivers, measuring the land as is done in Egypt, and inspecting the sluices through which the water is released from the main canals into their branches so that everyone may have an equal supply. The Sudarshan lake and Sanchi dam system would have been built on the basis of a sound knowledge of the principles of water balance with detailed hydrological investigations and by "engineers with experience of reservoir irrigation" with a higher level of understanding of hydraulic technology.

Similarly, the Ahar–Pyne system of the Mauryan Empire is an excellent example of a hydraulic structure. The Pynes are constructed as channels to utilize the river water flowing through the hilly regions, whereas the Ahars are catchments with embankments on three sides to store rainwater and the water from the Pynes. The Pynes feed many Ahars, and several distributaries are then constructed from both Pynes and Ahars for irrigating the field. The Ahar–Pyne system also works as a preventive mechanism for floods, as the catchments are designed to store excess rainwater.

Also, Arthashstra mentions Strotayantra, which must have been a kind of hydraulic machine with a wheel and buckets. The term "rahata," which is commonly used for a Persian wheel in India, is mentioned in the Gathasaptashati. In this context, it may be mentioned that symbols on the reverse of some early Andhra coins from Kolhapur have been taken to represent the waterwheels used for irrigation. A Nasik inscription of the same period refers to a guild of odayantrikas, "workers fabricating hydraulic engines." The exact nature of these machines may not be known, but the fact that considerable progress was made in the technology of lift irrigation during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods cannot be denied. And this progress was achieved not by the state bureaucrats but by the independent guilds of tank builders and machine makers. Kautilya mentions four different methods of "setting water into motion for the land to be irrigated." It can be believed that the methods were graded by him on the basis of their efficiency. Udghatam might have referred to the method of lifting water from tanks, wells, etc. with the help of a long bamboo balanced on a lever, with a heavy load on one end and a bucket on the other, while strotayantrapravartim referred to a kind of hydraulic machine. The solitary reference to the dam at Junagadh and to a canal in Kalinga are indicative of more stress on tanks and wells, which, on account of the technological progress attained in the lift irrigation system, must have been quite effective (Bhattacharya, 2012)<sup>5</sup>.

Besides, there is the epigraphic record of Ashoka about the construction of wells at every kos along the roads and the establishment of numerous drinking places. Thus, the existing archaeological evidence suggests that, in the Maurya period and the two centuries succeeding it, wells and especially rings Wells were constructed in sufficient numbers, but how far they were used for purposes of irrigation is not known. The fact that Asoka established drinking places (apana) in addition to wells might indicate that wells were also used for irrigation.

In ancient India, irrigation was conducted by such minor works as wells, tanks, ponds, etc., which did not require either the mobilization of labor on a large scale or a super-powerful bureaucracy to organize and manage them. These works were owned and maintained by local people, individually or collectively. The state enterprise in irrigation was only marginal and largely confined to the settlement of disputes that might arise among neighbors over the distribution of water.

In addition to the Indus-Saraswati and Gangetic valleys, we discovered an advanced level of ancient hydrological management in the Tamilakam region during the Sangam Age (c. 300 BCE–c. 300 CE), which reached its final form during the reign of the imperial Cholas and was continued by the mediaeval Vijayanagara-Nayak dynasties. Tolkappium is regarded as the first text to define the grammatical form of the Tamil language. Poets and bards of this age named these regions based on their hydro-geological characteristics: Kurunji (mountains), Mullai (forest), Marutham (agricultural land), and Neithal (coastal area). The agricultural region known as "Marutham" is associated with rivers, wells, ponds, and tanks. In "Thirukkural," immediately following the first ten couplets discussing the greatness of the world's Creator, the author devotes the next ten couplets to "rain" and demonstrates that rain is essential for the sustenance of life. It can be inferred that irrigated agriculture was practiced in this region of the country during the Sangam period, when the majority of the population pursued the prestigious profession of farming. The Grand Anicut, across the river Cauvery, 16 kilometers east of the city of Tiruchirapalli, is by far the most significant irrigation structure constructed by King Karikala Chola during the second century AD. This "anicut," as it was later dubbed, is truly magnificent in that it is possibly the world's oldest hydraulic structure built on a permeable foundation that is still operational at the head of the Cauvery delta. The amount of water taken from rivers and reservoirs through canals and tanks was, of course, measured in relation to the flow period, with the flow period determining the share of each farmer. Being a river with unreliable water supplies, the Vaigai contains hundreds of tanks in the Madurai and Ramanathapuram districts. These tanks appear to have existed under Pandyan rule and were most likely constructed in stages by the kings and chieftains. These tanks rely on their own catchments, with some receiving additional water from the river. "Madurai Kanci" is a literary work that provides a vivid description of the Pandyan nation during the reign of PandyanNedunchezian. The title also refers to a number of water lifting devices used in tank irrigation. The Sangam classic "Paripadal" contains a poem on the river Vaigai (Poem 20) that describes how the fresh and flooding waters of the river within the Madurai fort swelled up to the height of the city's walls and poured down the fort walls through openings that resembled the pouring of water mixed with blooming flowers by enormous male elephants with their trunks raised in worship. According to the passages in "Paripadal," the river Vaigai was viewed as a mighty river prone to frequent flooding, and several water-heads and sluices were built to control and regulate it. Beginning in the eighth century, Pandyan records reveal an abundance of sluices and river channels constructed around Madurai for irrigation purposes. In the Chera and Noyyil regions, the chiefs took the most initiative, in contrast to the Pandyan and Chola centralized states. ThagadurAdhigaman ruled over portions of the present-day Salem and Dharrnapuri districts and introduced the use of feeding channels for sugarcane cultivation. His virtues have been praised by the Tamil poetess Avvayar. His time period may have occurred around the third century AD (Mohanakrisnan, 2001)<sup>21</sup>

We also find reference to different types of artificial water storage techniques in epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, which, although based on certain historical events from the early 1st millennium BCE, were composed between 200 BCE and 200 AD. In the Ramayana, Kosala is lauded for being adevamatka, i.e., independent of rainfall. In the Mahabharata's Sabhaparva, Narada asks Yudhisthira if the kingdom's reservoirs, lakes, etc. are constructed at the appropriate distances for agricultural purposes. According to Manusmrti (second century A.D.), the king's responsibility is to construct irrigation systems. Additionally, the Dharmasütras of Visnu and Vasistha mention the construction of such works. Various Tirthas are mentioned in the Mahabharata (Anusasanaparvan 25.26), which is entirely devoted to the construction of Tirthas in Marwar. After the significance of irrigation works has been established, the next phase or principle in the management of water is the application of irrigation techniques. The water made accessible through various irrigation works is to be used for a variety of controlled purposes. This is another water management principle. It is to be offered for human consumption. There are references to Prapa in the Mahabharata (Santiparvan) as well. The Mahabharata's thirteenth parvan devotes an entire chapter to the usefulness of jaladana. Water must also be given to animals. A controlled water supply is required for plant growth. Each crop has a unique set of needs that vary during its growth cycle. The literal translation of Kusula (Mahabhaya), however, reveals this regulated water supply. It indicates that each paddy plot was surrounded by a dyke, which served two purposes: water supply regulation and inundation (wash-out) of the next field. Arjuna quenched the thirst of arrow-bed-lying Bhisma by penetrating the ground and creating a spring with his archery skills. This is an example of both controlled water supply and management of etc. for those constructing irrigation- subterranean water works. He also mentions peasant association irrigation work. It is appropriate to mention the interpretation of the Bhagiratha narrative here. His bringing the Ganges to earth is interpreted as diverting the east-flowing (i.e., toward Tibet) Ganges to flow southward using engineering techniques, thereby fertilizing the North Region, Also in Manusmrti, some expiation is prescribed for such an offense. The same passage states that those who do not assist the king when the river is being prepared or the dyke, etc., is being damaged by bandits should be exiled . Although we have very scant archaeological evidence for large scale water works done by the state or any organization during this period due to a lack of exploration and lesser excavation in the densely populated Gangetic plains, in which many ancient sites are still inhabited, one exception is the site of Sringverapura, where exploration and excavation were done on a larger scale (Date,2008)<sup>9</sup>

Sringaverapura is believed to have derived its name from the sage Rishyasringa, who is thought to have had his asrama (hermitage) here (Lal, 1992)<sup>19</sup>. The place features again in the Ramayana story, rather prominently, since it was here that Rama was ferried across the Ganga by the local Nishädachieftain, Guha. By the beginning of Period IV, i.e., in the second century B.C., it had reached its maximum extant, as indicated by the fact that remains from that period are practically all over the mound, which was excavated by B.B. Lal, who also found a large tank of monumental scale.