Editing Carvaka School of Thought in Indian Philosophy (section)

=== '''Social Outlook of Carvaka and Relevance in Contemporary Times''' ===
The ideological movement of Carvaka was probably a reaction against the beliefs, superstitions, rites and rituals of the Vedic age. The Carvakas were free thinkers. They set to demolish the foundation of orthodox Indian philosophy. The Carvakas are champions of rational empiricism because for them ''pratyaksha''is the only ''pramana'' and God is non-existent for them. It is the only system in traditional Indian philosophy which does not believe in anything which is beyond the catchment area of perception.  Attempts have been made to reconstruct the epistemology of the Carvaka/Lokayata system by assiduously collecting the fragments of the ''sutra'' works and its several commentaries as found quoted and paraphrased by its opponents. But no serious effort has so far been undertaken to reconstruct its social outlook. It appears from the work of Krishnamisra and Sriharsha, two Vedantin-philosopher poets, that the Carvakas were opposed to caste and gender discrimination. In Krishnamisra (eleventh century) allegorical play, ''Prabodhcandrodaya'' (Rise of Moon-like Intellect), Mahmoha (Great Delusion), an avowed materialist, declares -

‘If the bodies are alike in their different parts, the mouth, etc., how can there be a hierarchy of castes?’

A heretic in Sriharsa’s (twelfth century) ''Naisadhacarta'' (Life of Naisadha) throws a challenge to the forces of status quo ante: 

‘Since the purity of caste is possible only in the case of purity on each side of both families of the grandparents, what caste is pure by the purity of limitless generations? 

Fie on those who boast of family dignity! They hold women in check out of jealousy; but do not likewise restrain men, though the blindness of passion is common to both!

Spurn all censorious statements about women as not worth a straw. Why dost thou constantly cheat people when thou, too, art as bad as women?'

Both authors intended to depict the Carvakas as heretics and non-believers. Defiance of the caste system was considered a heretical idea and hence fit for censure (Bhattacharya, 2-4)<sup>1</sup>. Apparently, the Carvakas gave no credence to the Vedic idea that the Brahmins, Rajanyas (warriors), Vaisyas (traders and agriculturists), and Sudras (manual workers) were different parts of the supreme being called the ''purusa,'' which was a convenient way of explaining why the hierarchy of castes was bound to be accepted and observed in social life.Manu, the foremost lawgiver, received no consideration from the Carvakas. They did not regard Manu's or the Vedas' words as legitimate sources of knowledge. So, it is quite likely that the Carvakas did not adhere to caste norms in daily life and did not believe in the purported divine origin of castes. A verse attributed to the Carvakas runs as follows: 

There is no heaven, no final liberation, nor any soul in 

Another world. 

''Nor do the actions of the four castes, orders,etc.''

''Produce any real effect.''

The Carvakas did not admit word (sabda), that is, verbal testimony as a valid instrument of cognition (pramana), and so were not bound to accept what the Brahminical law books declared as something sacrosanct. Last but not least, it is clear that Lokayatikas fought for the development of social and political institutions free from religious dogma. The Carvakas had an ideal society in mind—one without organised religion, caste prejudice, or gender inequality which flows from their unprecedented ability of free thinking and opposing the Shastras prescribing rituals, social practices and customs. They took a completely reasonable attitude and criticised such renunciations as obstacles to establishing a society with equality of rights and opportunity. Their social philosophy was basically democratic in this regard.

==== '''The Decline of Carvakas  ''' ====
Most of the stalwart scholars of different schools of classical Indian philosophy have been contemptuous towards the Carvakas. This was a major reason for their downfall. This is evident from the fact that there are no extant original writings of the Carvaka school (with perhaps the exception of a much later work, Jayarasi Bhatta’s ''Tattvopaplavasimha''), our knowledge of the doctrines of Indian materialism is based on the other schools, which seem to be more interested in discrediting and lampooning materialism than in presenting an objective account of its tenet. Therefore it's no surprise, then, that materialism could never occupy a prominent and predominant position in the Indian philosophical paradigm. Many scholars believe that the outright rejection of the authority of the Vedas and the denouncement of the brahmana priests were fundamentally instrumental in the downfall of the Carvakas. But it cannot be considered as the sole cause since the Jainas and the Buddhists also have been equally contemptuous and opprobrious towards them. Rejection of God also is not much responsible for their downfall, because the Jainas, the Buddhists, the Samkhyas and the Mimamsakas too do not believe in the existence of God. The denial of the soul is shared along with materialism by some schools of Buddhism also. The theoretical reduction of the mind to the matter also cannot be regarded as the main cause to merit universal contempt that has fallen to the lot of the Carvakas. Individual hedonism also has an appeal to the animal in man and pleasure, in fact, is desired by all. The main cause, therefore, should be sought in Carvaka’s denial of all human values which make life worth living. Life without values is animal life, not human life. Sensual pleasure is a very faint shadow of supreme pleasure. There is a qualitative difference in pleasure. The pleasure of the pig is certainly not the same as the pleasure of the philosopher.<sup>1</sup> The idea of atheism and rejection of God also could not flourish significantly in an essentially spiritual nation like Bharat where God, religious customs, rituals, traditions, and festivals are so indispensably etched into the lives of people. Carvakas, despite their rational empiricism and worldly outlook, failed to satisfy the spiritual thirst of the populace. In this respect, Buddhism and Jainism prospered more because of the spirituality and piousness inherent to them. The universalising tendency of the Carvaka exposition of atheism and materialism also suffered from a serious hazard. Carvakas opposed the authority of Vedas and other religious texts but themselves transformed into an authoritative school which was based on the singularity of truth and rejected all other divergent ideas to be false (for ex- perception is the sole source of valid cognition). Thus, the advocacy of their own tenets transforms into a totalising imposition on the populace which is eventually rejected. The Bhakti movement arose as a response to the anomalies of the rigidity of the caste system, irrelevant rituals and religious practices, blind faiths and social dogmas and tended to present a liberal form of religion where devotees could identify themselves with simple religious practices. Although popular dissatisfaction against the existing social and religious evils was a major catalyst behind the spread of the Bhakti movement all over India for a long period of time, it did not discard belief and sadhana as two essential instruments for human liberation. Finally, it seems that Carvakas could not create a substantial culture around their philosophy which could sustain their ideas through practices, customs, art - architecture, literature and aesthetics. The failure of this aspect when the materialistic philosophy of Carvakas could not be institutionalised or materialized led to its gradual erosion from the minds of the masses.